Globalisation and gender: Difference between revisions

A survey of the globalization process, gender scholarships and theorists who study this phenomena and its effect on gender system is presented in this paper. Authors who deal with economic globalization and women's productive work argue that markets are gendered and the multinational corporations derive benefits from low paid women's work. In addition, a global feminized care work, migration, and political and cultural aspects of globalization from a gender perspective are also presented.  

[[Evaluation - Bojana - Gender|Evaluation of the summary]] - students' work.

In this lecture we will focus on globalization processes and aspects of the global world from a gender perspective. First of all, let me define gender. Gender means culturally formed characteristics and behavior associated with and learned by women and men (feminine/masculine). While sex is a biological characteristic, gender is socially constructed and is culturally relative; it means that its manifestations differ according to time and space in history and various cultures. In this text following issues are addressed: How is globalization gendered? How do globalization processes change the gender systems, relations and roles? How are women and men affected by globalization? How are the theories of globalization gendered?  

According to Marchard and Runyan (2000) and Pyle and Ward (2003) the global processes both change gender systems, roles and relations and strengthen gender inequalities. Globalization processes break dichotomies of the masculine and feminine world by bringing more and more women into former male dominated realms, especially production in factories and migration (Freeman 2001). As Walby (1997) points out, femininity is not defined only by motherhood or domesticity any more. On the other hand, globalization processes are rooted in gendered reality and ideologies, for instance gender stereotypes are used to justify paying women less for their work than men doing the same work. So, gender influences globalization and globalization reinforces gender formations.

   

Globalization processes create two dichotomous areas from a gender perspective: one is a world of global finance and postmodern individualism associated with western capitalist masculinity; while the other is based on gendered and racialized subordination and low-paid, unskilled labor which is done by women (Momsen 2004). Enloe (1990) pointed out that these two spheres are interdependent. Masculinized domains of global high politics and finances are interconnected with feminized cheap labor. Without unpaid and lowpaid women’s work, the global economy would not function.  

Kimmel (2003) analyses how the global hegemonic model of masculinity is opposed by local or national subordinate men who are trying to strenghten their masculinity and foster local patriarchy. While refusing globalization and spread of western or multicultural values, they try to make “their“ women subordinate and traditional again. He gives examples particularly of neo-nazi nationalist movements and the islamist men of Al Qaida.  

   

Globalization has opened markets; however, as Rai (2002) argues, not all markets were deregulated in the same way. Finances can flow freely all over the world, but flows of human labor are restricted. Both these markets are gendered: the trade and finance worlds are masculine, and labor markets are now being increasingly feminized by women entering the workforce. There has been a significant rise of women’s employment in the last half of the century; worldwide from 46% in 1950 to 81% in 2000, and mostly in export production (Rai 2002). On the other hand, due to production for export, there has been increased demand for flexible and cheap labor, which is feminized (Afshar and Barrientos 1999). As labor becomes more feminized, it has also become more flexible and informal. (Ramamurthy 2001).

The globalization processes change gender systems and relations. Momsen (2004) shows that the traditional gender contract based on men’s breadwinner role in the family is being eroded. The feminization of work and increase of the informal economy reflects a rather weakened role of men than higher economic opportunities for women. Women are overworked by the double burden (work both in and outside of the home) and men feel useless and degraded because they cannot maintain their dominant position at home. These changes of gender identities are resource of anxiety both for men and women. Paid jobs for women do not automatically lead to social empowerment or gender equality. Even when women work and are successful, it can cause crisis within family; and sometimes woman’s independence can end in violent reactions from men.

Two interconnected phenomena, care work and migration, are both feminized on a global scale. Care work or domestic labor done by women from developing regions in Western Europe and the U.S. is characterized by long working hours, low wages and a high level of abuse. Immigrant women, some of them illegal, are preferred over local women for this job because they can be paid less and exploited. Parreňas (2001) recognizes these types of domestic work: childcare, housecleaning, and elderly care. She points out that women migrants doing this “unskilled work” often have college degrees, but their income is higher than in the home country in their profession. As Sassen (2002) argue, this type of work is not unionized and workers have no rights, such as taking sick leave.  

This is associated with the overall diminishing role of states under globalization and especially breakdown of welfare state caused by imposed neoliberal policies. Women are affected by cuts in social services, and it is women who replace the social services. As Ramamurthy (2001) or Litt and Zimmerman (2003) argue, it is especially the structural adjustment policies that were harmful to women. Another effect of the welfare cutbacks on women is that women are affected as the majority of recipients of welfare benefits (Pyle and Ward 2003). Women’s struggle for survival also causes more health problems that are no longer treated by state medical care (Denis 2003). Women in many countries were also state employees working in social services, and with the reductions in social services they are losing jobs.

Although political aspects of globalization are less examined within the discourse on gender and globalization, some authors focus on positions of power in the global world, role of the state and democratization from a gender perspective. According to Kelly et al. (2001) democratization is still a goal to be achieved, because women and men are not equal globally. Even after 200 years of women’s political mobilization, there are still only few women in politics, and in some countries there are none. Authors criticize the neoliberal project of economic globalization for not being associated with processes of democratization; economic liberalization can be joined with various political regimes including military dictatorships. On the other hand, Walby ((2000) argues that there is a rise of women in parliamentary politics worldwide (in the last fifty years from 3 % to 13%). However, her understanding of politics is very narrow; she defines democratization only as participation of women in parliaments and only in democratic countries. According to Peterson and Runyan (1999) and Rai (2002) women are absent in the most important positions of global power. It is not only leadership of states, but also of international institutions such as the World Bank and the IMF, corporations and media. Global institutions are still dominated by men.