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Jordan: Water Scarcity: Difference between revisions
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It has very few rivers: the Euphrates and the Tigris are very important sources of water for the whole region, while the shrinking levels of the Jordan and its tributaries are of use to the west of the region only. | It has very few rivers: the Euphrates and the Tigris are very important sources of water for the whole region, while the shrinking levels of the Jordan and its tributaries are of use to the west of the region only. | ||
Relative decline of water supplies due to more frequent droughts and the burgeoning population has increased political conflict. It is expected that the population of countries in the Arabian Peninsula, for example, will double over the next 50 years to 600 million. Some of these countries are already extracting over 75% of their total renewable water resources. <ref name="Medina" /> Israel has about 300 m3 of fresh water per person per year and Kuwait a mere 1 m3, while in the Gaza Strip in Palestine it is estimated that 90% of the local water supply is undrinkable as a result of pollution and increased salinity. <ref name="Alqadi" /> This problem is aggravated by the continuing historical tensions between the Arabs and the Israelis. Tensions over water even played a part in the Arab-Israeli War of 1967 due to a dispute over the diversion of the River Jordan and the sabotage of water pipelines<ref name="Black"> Black, Emily. "Water and society in Jordan and Israel today: an introductory overview." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 368.1931 (2010): 5111-5116.</ref>; the post-war gains of Israel provided it with control over the headwaters of the Jordan and the aquifers of the West Bank and hence strengthened its overall geostrategic position in the region. <ref name="Alqadi" /> But despite such conflicts, water can also serve as a point of agreement; the Israeli-Palestine water commission, for example, is the only joint committee created by the Oslo Agreement that still exists today, while Israel and Jordan have worked together for years on managing the Sea of Galilee located in Israel but near the Yarmuk River, which demarcates the border between the two countries. <ref name="Black" /> | Relative decline of water supplies due to more frequent droughts and the burgeoning population has increased political conflict. It is expected that the population of countries in the Arabian Peninsula, for example, will double over the next 50 years to 600 million. Some of these countries are already extracting over 75% of their total renewable water resources. <ref name="Medina" /> Israel has about 300 m3 of fresh water per person per year and Kuwait a mere 1 m3, while in the Gaza Strip in Palestine it is estimated that 90% of the local water supply is undrinkable as a result of pollution and increased salinity. <ref name="Alqadi" /> This problem is aggravated by the continuing historical tensions between the Arabs and the Israelis. Tensions over water even played a part in the Arab-Israeli War of 1967 due to a dispute over the diversion of the River Jordan and the sabotage of water pipelines<ref name="Black"> Black, Emily. "Water and society in Jordan and Israel today: an introductory overview." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 368.1931 (2010): 5111-5116.</ref>; the post-war gains of Israel provided it with control over the headwaters of the Jordan and the aquifers of the West Bank and hence strengthened its overall geostrategic position in the region. <ref name="Alqadi" /> But despite such conflicts, water can also serve as a point of agreement; the Israeli-Palestine water commission, for example, is the only joint committee created by the [[wikipedia:en:Oslo I Accord|Oslo Agreement]] that still exists today, while Israel and Jordan have worked together for years on managing the Sea of Galilee located in Israel but near the Yarmuk River, which demarcates the border between the two countries. <ref name="Black" /> | ||
==Water in Jordan== | ==Water in Jordan== | ||
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===Groundwater resources=== | ===Groundwater resources=== | ||
It is groundwater stored in aquifers rather than surface water that provides Jordan with most of its domestic water supply. It is the only source of water in some areas of the country. The depth of groundwater is highly variable, ranging from 2 to 1,000m, and the main reserves are found in the south with a long-term safe yield estimate of about 90 MCM per year for 100 years.<ref name="Alqadi" /> The total long-term safe yield of all renewable groundwater resources in Jordan from 12 groundwater basins comprising several groundwater aquifer systems has been estimated at 275 MCM.<ref name="Mohsen" /> However, exploitation of this water resource is not without its problems, as salt levels vary between aquifers from 170 to 3,000 parts per million as a result of surrounding geological formations (calcium, magnesium and sodium leech into the water to various degrees, making the water [[wikipedia:en:Brackish water|“brackish”]]).<ref name="Alqadi" /> “Each source of groundwater needs to be considered independently in order to achieve effective management of the risk of salinity associated with each formation’s chemistry.”<ref name="Alqadi" /> There are also non-renewable fossil water supplies (i.e. resources that are not recharged through rainfall) that are being extracted at a rate of 77 MCM.<ref name="Kubursi"> Kubursi, Atif, et al. "Water scarcity in Jordan: Economic instruments, issues and options." Economic Research Forum Working Paper Series. No. 599. 2011.</ref> | It is groundwater stored in aquifers rather than surface water that provides Jordan with most of its domestic water supply. It is the only source of water in some areas of the country. The depth of groundwater is highly variable, ranging from 2 to 1,000m, and the main reserves are found in the south with a long-term safe yield estimate of about 90 MCM per year for 100 years.<ref name="Alqadi" /> The total long-term safe yield of all renewable groundwater resources in Jordan from 12 groundwater basins comprising several groundwater aquifer systems has been estimated at 275 MCM.<ref name="Mohsen" /> However, exploitation of this water resource is not without its problems, as salt levels vary between aquifers from 170 to 3,000 parts per million as a result of surrounding geological formations (calcium, magnesium and sodium leech into the water to various degrees, making the water [[wikipedia:en:Brackish water|“brackish”]]).<ref name="Alqadi" /> “Each source of groundwater needs to be considered independently in order to achieve effective management of the risk of salinity associated with each formation’s chemistry.”<ref name="Alqadi" /> There are also non-renewable fossil water supplies (i.e. resources that are not recharged through rainfall) that are being extracted at a rate of 77 MCM.<ref name="Kubursi"> Kubursi, Atif, et al. "Water scarcity in Jordan: Economic instruments, issues and options." Economic Research Forum Working Paper Series. No. 599. 2011.</ref> [[File:Groundwater flow.svg|Relative ground water travel times|thumb|right]] | ||
===Waste water resources=== | ===Waste water resources=== | ||
As of 2006, there were 16 wastewater treatment plants in Jordan, which provide an additional water resource for the country’s use. Because of Jordan’s topography and the location of the vast majority of its urban population above the Jordan Valley, most treated wastewater flows downstream into the Valley, where it is used for irrigation purposes.<ref name="Mohsen" />. Currently, around 80 MCM is used for irrigation<ref name="Kubursi" />, but the Jordanian government envisages 232 MCM of wastewater used for irrigation by 2020. <ref name="Mohsen" /> | As of 2006, there were 16 wastewater treatment plants in Jordan, which provide an additional water resource for the country’s use. Because of Jordan’s topography and the location of the vast majority of its urban population above the [[wikipedia:en:Jordan Valley|Jordan Valley]], most treated wastewater flows downstream into the Valley, where it is used for irrigation purposes.<ref name="Mohsen" />. Currently, around 80 MCM is used for irrigation<ref name="Kubursi" />, but the Jordanian government envisages 232 MCM of wastewater used for irrigation by 2020. <ref name="Mohsen" /> | ||
==Supply and demand== | ==Supply and demand== | ||
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There are three main uses for water in Jordan: municipal, industrial and agricultural. Agriculture is the single largest user of water, both from surface and aquifer resources. Irrigation water consumes 77.5% of the total water demand, while municipal and industry requirements make up the rest.<ref name="Hadadin" /> This is despite the fact that agriculture represents only 3% of Jordanian GDP.<ref name="Kubursi" /> | There are three main uses for water in Jordan: municipal, industrial and agricultural. Agriculture is the single largest user of water, both from surface and aquifer resources. Irrigation water consumes 77.5% of the total water demand, while municipal and industry requirements make up the rest.<ref name="Hadadin" /> This is despite the fact that agriculture represents only 3% of Jordanian GDP.<ref name="Kubursi" /> | ||
==Impact of water scarcity== | ==Impact of current water use practices== | ||
===Rationing and deficient water infrastructure=== | |||
Domestic water rationing was introduced as early as 1987, and many households in Ammam are without mains-water for six days a week. Such an obviously inadequate supply of water led to illegal tapping of water mains, resulting in 30,000 prosecutions for water violations in 2004 alone.<ref name="Alqadi" /> Water systems in Ammam are in a calamitous state with up to 54% of the 105 m3 entering the system lost or unaccounted for in 2004, while the majority of the city’s population thought the water supply polluted with chlorine, dirt, sediments and algae.<ref name="Alqadi" /> | |||
===Agriculture=== | |||
An exaggerated focus by the government on regulating the domestic water supply has diverted attention from the damage incurred to the water system through agricultural use where pollution from fertilisers and other agricultural outputs has had a large negative impact. | |||
Between 1953 and 1986, the government promoted agriculture production that it thought would align with the soil and water available. However, farmers preferred to grow crops with greater commercial potential, and this led to depleted water resources and soil quality. There was an over-reliance on thirsty tree crops irrigated by flooding with open canals highly susceptible to evaporation in such an arid climate; most the land was used to grow vegetables (54% of land area, 99.8% irrigated) or permanent fruit tree crops (33% of land area, 99.2% irrigated) (average numbers between 1994 and 2008).<ref name="Kubursi" /> As one would expect from these figures, much of the [[File:Soil Salinity2.jpg|Looking over the shoulder of a Peruvian farmer in Huarmey delta at waterlogged and salinised irrigated land with poor crop stand. | |||
This illustrates an environmental impact of upstream irrigation developments causing an increased flow of groundwater to this lower lying area leading to the adverse conditions.|thumb|right]]estimated cultivatable land in Jordan is located outside the zone of sufficient rainfall for rain-fed agriculture. Moreover, the land area that does receive sufficient rainfall for growing food crops is decreasing as climate change renders rain patterns more unreliable and urban expansion increases (Ammam, for example, covers some of the best rain-led land in the country). And as noted already, irrigation methods tend to be highly inefficient and wasteful due to the continued use of traditional flood irrigation systems rather than modern drip and sprinkler systems. | |||
===Over-pumping of groundwater=== | |||
It is estimated that current use of groundwater is 161% above the safe yield limit,<ref name="Alqadi" /> meaning that some of the non-renewable aquifers not recharged through rainwater will eventually run out altogether. Furthermore, the greater the drawdown on underwater systems, the more saline the water becomes as the concentration of natural minerals resulting from the natural rock formation of the aquifer increases, and hence requiring expensive desalination technology to remedy. | |||
===Overloaded wastewater systems=== | |||
As noted above, treated wastewater is another source of water utilised in Jordan. However, as with urban water supply systems, wastewater treatment plants have received low priority investment and current performance is insufficient to cope with the amount of wastewater that requires purification and so ends up discharging low quality effluent. This effluent then has a negative effect on public health because of contamination of crops or the build-up of toxins in irrigated soils. “Surface and ground are also adversely impacted due to runoff and seepage of polluted water, limiting their use for drinking water purposes. Furthermore, septic water is not regulated and untreated water discharged into the watershed has become a health and environmental issue.”<ref name="Kubursi" /> | |||
==Water scarcity as a barrier to sustainable development== | |||
===Environment and population pressure=== | |||
Over drawing on aquifers has led to the drying up of a large percentage of aquatic ecosystems in Jordan. The [[wikipedia:en:Azraq Wetland Reserve|Azraq Oasis]] – a wetland of international renown – dried up in 1985 as a result of its over exploitation for domestic and agricultural purposes.<ref name="Mohsen" /> Growth in human settlements has adversely affected natural streams and springs and often led to their extinction through overuse. To make up for the loss, wells were dug to extract renewable and non-renewable groundwater, but which has led to a reduction in the water table and increased salinity, while wastewater from human activity has resulted in contamination of groundwater resources. [[File:Palestinian refugees.jpg|thumb|left|Palestinian refugees making their way from Galilee in October–November 1948]] | |||
At the same time we should be careful to remember, however, that it is not only Jordan’s natural birth rate that is producing high population growth, but rather the state’s generosity as a host to the many refugees fleeing the numerous conflicts in the region. According to planning figures published by the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, Jordan will be host to nearly 900,000 refugees by the end of 2013.<ref>UNHCR, 2013 UNHCR country operations profile – Jordan [online] [cit 5.11.2013] available from http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e486566.html</ref> Nearly three million [[wikipedia:en:Palestinian refugee|Palestinian refugees]] made Jordan their home after the [[wikipedia:en:Arab–Israeli conflict|Arab-Israeli wars]] of [[wikipedia:en:1948 Arab–Israeli War|1948]] and [[wikipedia:en:Six-Day War|1967]], half a million Jordanian ex-patriates returned home after the [[wikipedia:en:Gulf War|First Gulf War of 1991]], and a further half million Iraqis arrived after the [[wikipedia:en:2003 invasion of Iraq|Second Gulf War of 2003]].<ref name="Kubursi" /> The Jordanian population currently stands at 6.3 million and is predicted to rise to 9.2 million by 2020. | |||
===Social=== | |||
Water shortages obviously have marked effect on the living conditions of average Jordanians. Jordan has the lowest domestic water consumption in the Arab world, and moreover municipal demand has exceeded available supply since the mid-1980s. During the peak of summer, 85% of Jordanians live at the “hygienic brink”.<ref name="Mohsen" /> | |||
As a developing nation, Jordan has few options to improve its overall water management infrastructure or diversify its economy, leading to a situation that has been compared to the ‘food politics’ of the United States, i.e. using shortages of a vital element in basic human survival to leverage a pro-American stance.<ref name="Mohsen" /> | |||
===Economic=== | |||
Industrial output is also highly reliant on large amounts of fresh water. Generally speaking, three litres of water are required to produce a tin of vegetables, 100 L for 1 kg of paper, 4,500 L to produce one ton of cement, 50,000 L to manufacture a ton of leather, and about 280,000 L to make one ton of steel.<ref name="Mohsen" /> Water is also needed for energy production and cooling systems. | |||
Due to the chronic shortages of water, Jordanian industrial companies often rely on water delivered by tankers at huge cost. Others rely on their own private wells that they have to keep drilling deeper and deeper at great cost as the water table falls, in addition to having to filter extracted water that is high in salt content. As there is a widespread ban on drilling new wells, companies are frequently forced to relocate to localities where there are existing wells, but where the price of land is understandably far higher than normal. | |||
Economic development is therefore being held back in Jordan by the high cost of industrial production requiring large amounts of quality fresh water. It would hence seem more logical from a purely economic point of view to reallocate water resources from agriculture to industry where “productivity per unit of consumed water is 40 times higher…and the employment effect is 13 times higher”.<ref name="Mohsen" /> | |||
==Resources== | ==Resources== | ||
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{{License cc|Andrew Barton}} | {{License cc|Andrew Barton}} | ||
{{TAČR}} | |||
{{MOSUR}} | |||
[[Category:Case studies]] | |||