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Ethiopia: Deforestation: Difference between revisions
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==The problem of poverty and deforestation in Ethiopia== | ==The problem of poverty and deforestation in Ethiopia== | ||
Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries in the world, and its poverty and land and resource degradation seem to be part and parcel of the same vicious circle. The supreme irony is that Ethiopia is actually a country with a very diverse environment and rich biodiversity and unique ecosystems (the [[wikipedia:en:Ethiopian_Highlands|Ethiopian Highlands]], for example, elevate the country, which lies close the equator, to give an unexpectedly temperate climate, so although it lies in tropical altitudes, its climate varies between cool in the highlands and warm in the lowlands). "Ethiopia relies on its diverse biological resources for its socio-economic development, and these resources are now under severe pressure."<ref>Bishaw, B., & Abdelkadir, A. (2003). Agroforestry and Community Forestry for Rehabilitiation of Degraded Watersheds on the Ethiopian Highlands. Available at http://etff.org/Articles/Agroforestry_and_Community_forestry_Bishaw_and_Abdelkadir.pdf</ref> [[File:Ethiopian highlands 01 mod.jpg|thumb|The Ethiopian Highlands]] | Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries in the world, and its poverty and land and resource degradation seem to be part and parcel of the same vicious circle. The supreme irony is that Ethiopia is actually a country with a very diverse environment and rich biodiversity and unique ecosystems (the [[wikipedia:en:Ethiopian_Highlands|Ethiopian Highlands]], for example, elevate the country, which lies close the equator, to give an unexpectedly temperate climate, so although it lies in tropical altitudes, its climate varies between cool in the highlands and warm in the lowlands). "Ethiopia relies on its diverse biological resources for its socio-economic development, and these resources are now under severe pressure."<ref name="Bishaw">Bishaw, B., & Abdelkadir, A. (2003). Agroforestry and Community Forestry for Rehabilitiation of Degraded Watersheds on the Ethiopian Highlands. Available at http://etff.org/Articles/Agroforestry_and_Community_forestry_Bishaw_and_Abdelkadir.pdf</ref> [[File:Ethiopian highlands 01 mod.jpg|thumb|The Ethiopian Highlands]] | ||
Thirty-nine percent of the population lives below the poverty line, only 34% of the rural population has access to an adequate water source, and the average life expectancy is a low 59 years (although these figures have been improving in recent years thanks in part to a relatively high GDP growth rate of 7.5%). Agriculture accounts for about 46% percent of GDP, of which forestry plays a part, although some estimates put direct losses of productivity from deforestation and land degradation at at least 3 percent of agriculture GDP.<ref>Berry, L. (2003). Land Degradation in Ethiopia. Its Extent and Impact. FAO</ref> With a population estimated in 2012 at over 84 million<ref>http://data.worldbank.org/country/ethiopia</ref> (making it the 14th largest country in the world) and a growth rate of 2.1 percent this is a critically important figure. | Thirty-nine percent of the population lives below the poverty line, only 34% of the rural population has access to an adequate water source, and the average life expectancy is a low 59 years (although these figures have been improving in recent years thanks in part to a relatively high GDP growth rate of 7.5%). Agriculture accounts for about 46% percent of GDP, of which forestry plays a part, although some estimates put direct losses of productivity from deforestation and land degradation at at least 3 percent of agriculture GDP.<ref>Berry, L. (2003). Land Degradation in Ethiopia. Its Extent and Impact. FAO</ref> With a population estimated in 2012 at over 84 million<ref>http://data.worldbank.org/country/ethiopia</ref> (making it the 14th largest country in the world) and a growth rate of 2.1 percent this is a critically important figure. | ||
Deforestation and the resulting environmental degradation is a major problem in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and a key factor challenging food security, community livelihood and sustainable development. In the late nineteenth century, approximately 30 percent of the country was covered with forest.<ref>Ofcansky, T., & LaVerle Berry, eds. (1991) Ethiopia: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. Available from http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/97.htm</ref> But the clearing of land for agricultural use and the logging of trees for fuel slowly changed the look of the country’s forest cover and which sped up considerably as the 20th century progressed. Between 1955 and 1979, over 77 percent of the country’s forested area disappeared and it continues to lose 8 percent or 140,000 hectares of its remaining forests annually.<ref>Winberg, E. (2010) Participatory Forestry Management in Ethiopia: Practices and Experiences. FAO Report</ref> | Deforestation and the resulting environmental degradation is a major problem in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and a key factor challenging food security, community livelihood and sustainable development. In the late nineteenth century, approximately 30 percent of the country was covered with forest.<ref name="Ofcansky">Ofcansky, T., & LaVerle Berry, eds. (1991) Ethiopia: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. Available from http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/97.htm</ref> But the clearing of land for agricultural use and the logging of trees for fuel slowly changed the look of the country’s forest cover and which sped up considerably as the 20th century progressed. Between 1955 and 1979, over 77 percent of the country’s forested area disappeared and it continues to lose 8 percent or 140,000 hectares of its remaining forests annually.<ref>Winberg, E. (2010) Participatory Forestry Management in Ethiopia: Practices and Experiences. FAO Report</ref> | ||
[[File:Ethiopia (Africa orthographic projection).svg|thumb|left|Ethiopia located on the globe]] | [[File:Ethiopia (Africa orthographic projection).svg|thumb|left|Ethiopia located on the globe]] | ||
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There is a very wide array of forested landscapes in Africa. Many of these forests are under incredible pressure from people as local populations expanded almost exponentially over the course of the last century: nearly everywhere the forested landscapes show clear signs of human impact. How they look today is a result of both environmental and human factors, but is the latter which have had the most negative impact. Humans interact with the forested landscape through collection of forest products, shifting cultivation, permanent of semi-permanent agriculture, and many different kinds of agroforestry systems. The issues of deforestation and accompanying land degradation is high on national and international agendas, but still poses a large challenge at the local level, as is the case in Ethiopia. <ref>Bongers, F., & Tennigkeit, T. (2010). Degraded Forests in Eastern Africa management and restoration</ref> | There is a very wide array of forested landscapes in Africa. Many of these forests are under incredible pressure from people as local populations expanded almost exponentially over the course of the last century: nearly everywhere the forested landscapes show clear signs of human impact. How they look today is a result of both environmental and human factors, but is the latter which have had the most negative impact. Humans interact with the forested landscape through collection of forest products, shifting cultivation, permanent of semi-permanent agriculture, and many different kinds of agroforestry systems. The issues of deforestation and accompanying land degradation is high on national and international agendas, but still poses a large challenge at the local level, as is the case in Ethiopia. <ref>Bongers, F., & Tennigkeit, T. (2010). Degraded Forests in Eastern Africa management and restoration</ref> | ||
Deforestation in Ethiopia takes place in both forests and farm woodlands and is recognized as the most severe environmental problem there. Deforestation and land degradation are impairing the capacity of forests and the land to contribute to food security and to provide other benefits such as fuel wood and fodder. The National Conservation Strategy of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) identifies deforestation as a major problem not only in the forest proper, but also in how it impacts upon other sectors such as crop farming, animal husbandry, water resources, and wildlife habitat. <ref | Deforestation in Ethiopia takes place in both forests and farm woodlands and is recognized as the most severe environmental problem there. Deforestation and land degradation are impairing the capacity of forests and the land to contribute to food security and to provide other benefits such as fuel wood and fodder. The National Conservation Strategy of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) identifies deforestation as a major problem not only in the forest proper, but also in how it impacts upon other sectors such as crop farming, animal husbandry, water resources, and wildlife habitat.<ref name="Bishaw" /> | ||
Specific examples of the benefits forests bring to the local population – 85% of which is reliant on the land for their livelihood – include a source of fuel and building materials, as well as [[wikipedia:en:Non-timber_forest_products|non-timber forest products]] (NTFPs) such herbs and spices and traditional medicaments, and natural food products like nuts, honey, fruit and edible fungi, plus they provide cover and food sources for domesticated animal populations. Forests provide the invaluable natural ecosystems that house the wide range of tree and plant species and the fauna that rely on them for their survival that otherwise would not survive in typical manmade monocultural habitats, and of course they also act as conservators and regenerators of soil and filtration systems for natural water catchments and hence protect waterways from damaging effluent run-off from chemical fertilisers and rapid evaporation from constant exposure to the sun. | Specific examples of the benefits forests bring to the local population – 85% of which is reliant on the land for their livelihood – include a source of fuel and building materials, as well as [[wikipedia:en:Non-timber_forest_products|non-timber forest products]] (NTFPs) such herbs and spices and traditional medicaments, and natural food products like nuts, honey, fruit and edible fungi, plus they provide cover and food sources for domesticated animal populations. Forests provide the invaluable natural ecosystems that house the wide range of tree and plant species and the fauna that rely on them for their survival that otherwise would not survive in typical manmade monocultural habitats, and of course they also act as conservators and regenerators of soil and filtration systems for natural water catchments and hence protect waterways from damaging effluent run-off from chemical fertilisers and rapid evaporation from constant exposure to the sun. | ||
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* '''Misdirected foreign aid and de-emphasis of indigenous knowledge.''' This goes hand-in-hand with the rise of cash cropping, as well-intentioned aid foreign programmes and World Bank-imposed Structural Adjustment Programmes have laid stress on modernising the Ethiopian economy and incorporating it into the global economy through the farming of monocultural crops for world markets, such as the aforementioned coffee, and cereal crops for export. This has again led to forest clearance for fresh fertile land that is in many cases quickly exhausted without the liberal application of chemical fertilisers. The same process also tends to de-emphasise customary agricultural and forestry practices though which some equilibrium between livelihood, environmental sustainability and resource exploitation was maintained in the past. | * '''Misdirected foreign aid and de-emphasis of indigenous knowledge.''' This goes hand-in-hand with the rise of cash cropping, as well-intentioned aid foreign programmes and World Bank-imposed Structural Adjustment Programmes have laid stress on modernising the Ethiopian economy and incorporating it into the global economy through the farming of monocultural crops for world markets, such as the aforementioned coffee, and cereal crops for export. This has again led to forest clearance for fresh fertile land that is in many cases quickly exhausted without the liberal application of chemical fertilisers. The same process also tends to de-emphasise customary agricultural and forestry practices though which some equilibrium between livelihood, environmental sustainability and resource exploitation was maintained in the past. | ||
* '''Distance from markets.''' As a result of the long years of violent conflict, there has been a total lack of investment in the infrastructure that would support more sustainable use of forest resources by local communities. For example, the lack of development means there are few roads and hence easy access to markets to sell forest products. The result is on-going poverty in the most inaccessible regions and hence over-exploitation of forest resources for the basic needs of survival. | * '''Distance from markets.''' As a result of the long years of violent conflict, there has been a total lack of investment in the infrastructure that would support more sustainable use of forest resources by local communities. For example, the lack of development means there are few roads and hence easy access to markets to sell forest products. The result is on-going poverty in the most inaccessible regions and hence over-exploitation of forest resources for the basic needs of survival. | ||
* '''Over-exploitation of NTFPs.''' Whether for subsistence or commercial purposes, some argue that intense harvesting of NTFPs is feasible because of supposedly low associated ecological impacts, exaggerated extraction of forest products can have a negative impact on the population dynamics of the plants being exploited. Such impacts may lead to changes in the forest community structure. The impact depends on the parts of plants that are harvested in NTFPs. Harvesting of some NTFPs like leaves and fruits, may have a negligible effect on the plant population being exploited, depending on the intensity of the harvest. Harvesting of bark, roots or bulbs, however, usually kills or fatally weakens the plant species used. For other products, such as palm heart, trees have to be cut to be able to harvest the product. An important group of NTFP in East Africa is gums and resins or Acaica, Boswellia and Commiphora species that produce gum Arabic, frankincense and myrrh. <ref | * '''Over-exploitation of NTFPs.''' Whether for subsistence or commercial purposes, some argue that intense harvesting of NTFPs is feasible because of supposedly low associated ecological impacts, exaggerated extraction of forest products can have a negative impact on the population dynamics of the plants being exploited. Such impacts may lead to changes in the forest community structure. The impact depends on the parts of plants that are harvested in NTFPs. Harvesting of some NTFPs like leaves and fruits, may have a negligible effect on the plant population being exploited, depending on the intensity of the harvest. Harvesting of bark, roots or bulbs, however, usually kills or fatally weakens the plant species used. For other products, such as palm heart, trees have to be cut to be able to harvest the product. An important group of NTFP in East Africa is gums and resins or Acaica, Boswellia and Commiphora species that produce gum Arabic, frankincense and myrrh.<ref name="Bishaw" /> [[File:Boswellia sacra.jpg|left|thumb|Flowers and branches of the Boswellia sacra tree, the species from which most frankincense is derived]] | ||
* '''Land ownership.''' Ethiopia has seen a number of changes in land ownership, which continue to provide uncertainty to the farmer and to rural communities. The land use system is associated with the decrease in the size of holdings both for arable and grazing lands. Thus there is a continued trend toward the conversion of forested and marginal lands to agricultural lands, resulting in massive environmental degradation and a serious threat to sustainable agriculture and forestry. <ref | * '''Land ownership.''' Ethiopia has seen a number of changes in land ownership, which continue to provide uncertainty to the farmer and to rural communities. The land use system is associated with the decrease in the size of holdings both for arable and grazing lands. Thus there is a continued trend toward the conversion of forested and marginal lands to agricultural lands, resulting in massive environmental degradation and a serious threat to sustainable agriculture and forestry.<ref name="Bishaw" /> Before 1974 about half of the forestland was privately owned or claimed, and approximately half was held by the government. There was next to no government control of forestry operations prior to the revolution. The l975 land reform under the Derg nationalised forestland and sawmills, which were concentrated in the south. The government controlled harvesting of forestland, and in some cases individuals had to obtain permits from local peasant associations to cut trees. But this measure encouraged illegal logging and expedited the destruction of Ethiopia's forests.<ref name="Ofcansky" /> | ||
== Resources == | == Resources == | ||