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            "235": {
                "pageid": 235,
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                "title": "Read more about migration",
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                        "*": "This article sets out to rethink the dynamics of the migratory process under conditions of globalization. Two main models of migration and incorporation dominated academic and policy approaches in the late twentieth century: first, the settler model, according to which immigrants gradually integrated into economic and social relations, re-united or formed families and eventually became assimilated into the host society (sometimes over two or three generations); second, the temporary migration model, according to which migrant workers stayed in the host country for a limited period, and maintained their affiliation with their country of origin. Globalization, defined as a proliferation of cross-border flows and transnational networks, has changed the context for migration, New technologies of communication and transport allow frequent and multi-directional flows of people, ideas and cultural symbols. The erosion of nation-state sovereignty and autonomy weakens systems of border-control and migrant assimilation. The result is the transformation of the material and cultural practices associated with migration and community formation, and the blurring of boundaries between different cat- egories of migrants. These trends will be illustrated through case-studies ofa number ofAsian and European immigration countries. It is important to re-think our understanding of the migratory process, to under- stand new forms of mobility and incorporation, particularly the emergence of transnational communities, multiple identities and multi-lay- ered citizenship. \n\nInternational migration suddenly became a key issue in international politics at the beginning of the 1990s, when the breakdown of the bi-polar power constellation of the Cold War seemed to have opened the floodgates for vast new population flows. Right-wing politicians and sensationalist media con- jured up images of welfare states being \u2018swamped\u2019 and national identities being undermined by mass movements of impoverished people from East to West and South to North. Governments responded with tight border restrictions and international control measures such as the Schengen Agreement. In the meantime, exaggerated fears have died down, but issues ofmigration regulation and the effects of migration on both sending and receiving societies remain prominent in political and academic discourse. It is now widely recognized that cross-border population mobility is inextricably linked to the other flows that constitute globalization, and that migration is one ofthe key forces ofsocial transformation in the contemporary world. This makes it vital to understand the causes and characteristics ofinternational migration as well as the processes of settlement and societal change that arise from it. \n\nIn this article, I will start with a brief discussion of conceptual issues of migration research, and then focus on two main areas: likely trends in inter- national migration in the years ahead, and perspectives for migrant settlement and their consequences for multicultural societies and transnational communities. I will concentrate on receiving countries, but it is not possible to do so exclusively, as migration is a major force oftransformation in countries of on- gin, and therefore affects their international situation and their relations with receiving countries. Moreover, many countries are both sending and receiving countries for different types of migrants, or are in the process of transition from the one type to the other. Migration, development and international relations are thus closely linked (Castles, 1999, 2000a, 2OOOb)\n\n[[Category:Migration]]"
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            "481": {
                "pageid": 481,
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                "title": "Research",
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                        "*": "== Introduction: Facts about the mining industry in Ghana ==\nThe mining industry has always played an important role in Ghana\u00b4s development. Since the regularization of 1989 when the first legal framework for registration of small-scale gold and diamond mines, mineral production and sales was established in the country, the sector has produced and sold around 1.5 million troy ounces of gold and 8.0 million carats of diamonds. The production of minerals has often been at the cost of local environment and has produced a negative impact on society. In order to make the industry more sustainable, the integration of the three pillars of sustainable development is required. Nevertheless, there are still difficulties in conducting a stakeholder dialogue about this issue as the interests of stakeholders are so different <ref>(AMANKWA, ANIM-SACKE 2002: 1)</ref>. \n\n== Are research institutions really partners for dialogue about long term visions? ==\nResearch Institutions like the International Institute for Environmental and Development (IIED), established in 1999, the Mining and Energy Research Network (MERN) and other groups active in the region play an important role in stakeholder dialogue about long term visions for development. They develop an institutional framework for the different groups in order to cover all interests in the best way and lead the industry toward sustainability. One of the MERN studies shows us that the environmental performance of a company relates more to its \"capacity to innovate than to the regulatory regime under which it operates\" <ref name= Warhurst> Warhurst A.(ed)(1998): Mining and Environment Case Stidies from the AmericasAvailable from http://web.idrc.ca/en/ev-9341-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html (Access on 08.01.2012).</ref>. \n\nThe aims of the institutional framework are to establish satisfactory voluntary standards and to identify instruments that will help to make the services of mining companies more sustainable. Apart from this, it is very important to create platforms for analysis, communication and engagement among all stakeholders in the sector to be able to mitigate the negative effects of small-scale gold and diamond mining. Another task of the research institutions is to advise on key elements which can improve the systems of mineral extraction and therefore find the means of transition to sustainable development <ref>(MMSD 2002: 15)</ref>. \n\n== The role of research institutions in stakeholder dialogue ==\nThe Research Institutions play an important role of the mediator between varieties of stakeholders\u2019 interests. Especially when there is an urge need to combine the economic growth of the region as primary aim with interest in higher standards of performance and avoiding damage in sensitive ecological and cultural areas. Local communities expect positive changes\u2014employment, infrastructure\u2014after the start of the projects and moreover they expect companies to respect their rights. Research institutions can help to solve this, since the environmental performance of a company is often a function of its efficiency. The aim of efficiency usually results in a quest for environmental achievements at no extra cost <ref name= Warhurst ></ref>. Other positive externalities could also be identified by research, as employees are interested in safer and healthier work conditions and security when employment ends. And as consumers they demand safe products produced according to environmental and social standards. How it is possible to combine all these wishes so that in the end everybody is satisfied? Policy should aim to promote environmental innovation and innovative capacity in the sector  <ref name=Warhurst> </ref>(p.21).\n\nSome of these plans are already present in the UNCED Agenda 21 and are also reflected in the formation of the International Council on Metals and the Environment (ICME) <ref name=Warhurst> </ref>(p.25).\n\n== Possible Solutions ==\n===Consolidation of democratic procedures of decision-making===\nThe scientific field of the mining industry can be employed in different ways. In particular, the sustainability perspective will win if it slightly re-focuses its subject of exploration. There is a variety of solutions from sustainable perspective which should be adopted on these three levels: Local, National and Global. On the local level the industry shall provide jobs, directly as well as indirectly to aid in the developing of the national economy. Democratic procedures of decision-making process as community engagement, integrated impact assessment or community sustainable plan shall be taken. In order to provide transparency and to decrease informational asymmetry the government shall provide access to information for all society groups and encourage public participation. Beside this land rights regimes and compensation systems shall be developed to maximize the benefits of mineral development. Research institutions must distinguish between small scale mining and large scale mining in their policy proposals <ref> Hentschel T, Nruschka F, Priester F.(2002): GLOBAL REPORT ON ARTISANAL AND SMALL-SCALE MINING. Working Paper 70, Mining, Minerals and sustainable Development (MMSD) Project, International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED).</ref>.\n\n===Innovations in technical processes===\nInnovation encouraging regulatory scheme forms an important part of the plan. The biggest challenge of pollution-prevention control is that large number of firms that cause pollution often has little capacity for innovation  <ref name=Warhurst> </ref>. Expenditure programs and incentives are required for mechanisms of promotion of environmental innovation. These must be connected to on site recultivation of the mined areas, monitoring of altering of air, soil and water quality. The motivation of a company to innovate under these regulatory measures should be in \"reducing the long-term risk of expensive shutdowns, costly court cases\" <ref name=Warhurst> </ref>(p.4). Regulatory framework also needs to provide environment in which companies can commercialize their own custom technology. Cleanup can also be connected with s reclaim of material, which is economic by itself. Generally the pollution-prevention pays principle positions a company in a competitive advantage if it eliminates all pollution induced costs. According to Alison Warhurst, best incentives for environmental regulation are emission taxes and auctioned permits. \n\n===Roles of research institutions in the small-scale mining industry===\nThe support and advancement of artisanal and small-scale mining is essential to secure the economic prosperity of small local communities and to improve the environmental impact of those prevalent activities (APPIAH 1998); Ghana recently regulated small scale mining through a Small-Scale Gold Mining Law and bodies of governmental influence such as the Precious Mineral Marketing Corporation. Legal miners operate by a concession and the minister of mines provides several centers of technical extension services<ref name= ARYEE > Aryee, B.N., Ntibery, B.K., Atorkui E.(2003): Trends in the Small Scale Mining of Precious Minerals. In: Ghana: A Perspektive of its Environmental Impact, Journal of Cleaner Production.</ref>(p.133). The illegal operators operate uncontrollably under the \"hit and run\" regime <ref name= ARYEE></ref>(p.133). Both can be target of investments and transition from local to semi mechanized mining. \n\nAs B.NA.Aryee, B.K.Ntibery, E. Atorkui state, the sector of small scale mining would also benefit from certain improvements of geological information availability (geological surveys), geological site and liabilities management, geological and technological education of the miners for both the illegal and legal miners.\n\n===Information distribution programs ===\nAccording to B.NA.Aryee at al., there are already several measures in place, such as the system of legalization, under which workers are required approval from environmental protection agency which is further verified through controls and threat of sanctions <ref name= ARYEE></ref>(p.137). Technical support and education is provided in training and workshops (since 2000, also bookkeeping and cost calculation and mercury pollution abatement is included). Other measures are considered for adoption<ref name= ARYEE>:138</ref>, such as the provision of geological information to miners <ref>Hilson, G., Maponga, O.(2004): HOW HAS A SHORTAGE OF CENSUS AND GEOLOGICAL DATA INHIBITED THE REGULARIZATION OF ARTISANAL AND SMALL-SCALE MINING? In: Natural Resources Forum 200428(1).</ref> and development of ample processing techniques.\n\n== Global tasks ==\nOn the global level the Global Labour-Management Agreement shall be adopted as well as Reporting Guidelines shall be developed to provide transparency and fairness. Through the dialogue of mineral legacies is supposed to develop a Complaints and Dispute Resolution Mechanism and sustainable Development Support Facility.\n\nLiterature: \n<references/>\n{{License cc|Jan Ot\u010den\u00e1\u0161ek, Anna Berestetska, Antje W\u00f6lpern}}"
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